Tongbulgyo and the Distinctive Journey of Korean Buddhism

The Buddhist Channel, 18 January 2024

Seoul, South Korea -- Korean Buddhism holds a unique position among its global counterparts, marked by an intrinsic effort to reconcile perceived inconsistencies within Mahayana Buddhism.

Early Korean monks, recognizing incongruities in the traditions inherited from foreign lands, responded with a holistic approach that gave birth to Tongbulgyo, or "inter-penetrated Buddhism." This distinctive variation sought to harmonize disputes through the principle of hwajaeng, a concept championed by Korean scholars.

The predominant Seon Lineage, represented by the Jogye and Taego Orders, defines the contemporary landscape of Korean Buddhism. Influencing other Mahayana traditions, particularly those rooted in Chan teachings and the closely related Zen, Korean Buddhism has left an indelible mark on East Asian Buddhist thought.

Tracing its roots to the introduction of Buddhism in 372, Korean Buddhism faced initial acceptance, coexisting with indigenous shamanism. The religion found firm ground during the Goryeo period but suffered repression during the subsequent Joseon era, yielding only after Buddhist monks played a crucial role in repelling Japanese invasions. Despite enduring challenges, Korean Buddhism evolved through the colonial period, with monks shaping their unique identity, laying the groundwork for Mingung Pulgyo, "Buddhism for the people."

In post-World War II Korea, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism experienced a resurgence, with approximately a quarter of South Koreans identifying as Buddhist in a 2005 survey. Yet, the ambiguous nature of Buddhist identification, coupled with Buddhism's integration into Korean culture, challenges precise quantification. Beyond formal religious adherence, Buddhism in Korea has become a philosophical and cultural underpinning, influencing a broad spectrum of individuals.

Examining the Three Kingdoms period, we discover the roots of Korean Buddhism in Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Early Korean monks undertook journeys to China and India in the 6th century, fostering diverse schools of thought such as Samlon, Gyeyul, Yeolban, Wonyung, and Hwaeom. The spread of Buddhism to Japan further underscored the profound influence of Korean Buddhism beyond its borders.

The Goguryeo period saw the assimilation of Buddhism into Korean society, while Baekje became an early center for Vinaya studies under monk Gyeomik. Silla, initially resistant, eventually embraced Buddhism under King Jinheung, becoming a haven for intellectual luminaries like Jajang and Wonhyo. Unified Silla's political stability facilitated a flourishing era of Buddhist scholarship, with figures like Wonhyo and Uisang shaping the dominant Beopseong school and influencing not only Korean Buddhism but also Chinese and Tibetan traditions.

In modern times, the Seon school, particularly the Jogye order, dominates the Korean Buddhist landscape, preserving disciplined traditional practices. The Taego order, while smaller in terms of clergy and adherents, contributes to the preservation of traditional Buddhist arts. Contemporary Seon practice, rooted in the integrated approach of Jinul, maintains a balance between meditation and the study of Buddhist texts.

Despite evolving challenges and an increasing Western presence in Korean monastic training, the essence of Korean Buddhism endures. A complex interplay of tradition, philosophy, and cultural integration defines Korean Buddhism, ensuring its lasting impact on the broader tapestry of Buddhist history.